Women in Law Enforcement

Women in Law Enforcement Essay There are many stereotypes that women in law enforcement field had to face throughout time. Women troubled with being taken serious as a crime fighter, or if a women would ever be allowed to become a police officer, was a question because women are usually viewed from others as too small, weak and gentle to ever be taken serious from the public. In this research paper I will explain the background on women in the law enforcement and how women have the same intelligence, communication, compassion, and diplomacy as a male officer.Having examples from articles and an interview from a women officer will help my thesis on how women can be successful as any male officer. Women have struggled since the early 1800s to have a career with law enforcement so one day hope to succeed and be recognized as a valued part of law enforcement just like their male counterparts. Women dealt with lack of respect, sexual harassment, discrimination.These times were very diffic ult and challenging for female officers not only verbally and emotionally but also because the police department only made uniforms to fit men officers, who made the female officers, look unprofessional and uncomfortable and very hard to do their job, when they could hardly walk in the heavy yet loose-fitting uniforms they wore. â€Å"In the past women had two choices: They could wear a very high-waisted, darted pants pattern from the 1970s or they could wear men's pants,†(Garret).These uniforms make a female’s job even more difficult with the extra weight and fabric bunched inside of their uniform, also caused a delay when reaching for their firearm. The uniforms made their job even more dangerous for females than for male officers. This demonstrates an immense example of how fearless women had to be, known that they were an easier target to take advantage of and was more overlooked from citizens. During World War II women were hired into law enforcement agencies, exc ept most of these women who were hired to auxiliary work.The women that joined the police force during the war helped to assist new men that were employed or couldn’t join the military. Many women worked as dispatchers or clerical workers within the departments. While men officers still had patrol duties and worked as the crime fighters. The women were stuck with any job that a male officer wouldn’t like to do or feel comfortable doing, like helping with children and young women, or talking to families.After the war had ended a new push toward advancing women in the career through integration with the men officers, became more demanding than ever before. The amount of women wanting a career in law enforcement encouraged them to work harder for a higher profession as a career distinct from a social worker and office help to working in the field with the men; starting with patrol ride along. These changes led to greater demands for equal treatment and opportunities for w omen police officers.The 1950s and early 1960s was when women started to double with the number of them working in law enforcement. This was the beginning of a change in policing that would have a dramatic effect on women in law enforcement everywhere. The changes helped women excel with the police force throughout the 70's and 80's. In 1972 the Civil Rights Act Title VII expanded to include public agencies and as a result police departments were prohibited by law from discriminating against women in hiring, recruiting, promotions, and working conditions.The Revenue Sharing Act and the Crime Control Act, both helped women significantly on holding funds from departments that discriminated against. The percentage of women in police agencies from 1960 to around 1980 kept ever-increasing with larger numbers of women joining which brought more opportunities and challenges for them. From 1970 into the early 1990’s women in law enforcement have worked and fought for the same equal j obs of policing as men officers. A few examples would be on patrol, in command positions, and in promoting and recruiting officers. It is clear that the structural changes in the law in the United States have helped to create an increase in the numbers of women in this traditionally male dominated field of police work. In policing, as departments expanded in the early 1970's, a related increase of black and white women police occurred driven by affirmative action practices†(Price). In 1985 Penny Harrington became the first woman to be named Chief of Police for a major city, Portland, Oregon, and in Atlanta, Georgia in 1994 Beverly J. Harvard became the first African American woman to be made Chief of Police for a large city.These accomplishments are a strong testament to the courage and perseverance that women have shown throughout the history of women in policing. Despite the fact that the law enforcement fields are heavily male dominated, woman have been making a large impac t for themselves throughout country. Until the women's liberal movement in the 1970s, women generally had clerical roles or held jobs as dispatchers. Then, civil rights and affirmative action laws enabled women to assume they would have a job in law enforcement.

Public Administration

Journal of Public Administration and Policy Research Vol. 4(2) pp. 23-31 March, 2012 Available online at http://www. academicjournals. org/JPAPR DOI: 10. 5897/JPAPR11. 049 ISSN 2141-2480  ©2012 Academic Journals Review Ethics in Public Administration D. Radhika Ph. D. Research Scholar, Post-Graduate and Research Department of Public Administration, Anna Adarsh College for Women, (affiliated to the University of Madras) Chennai-600040, Tamilnadu, India. E-mail: [email  protected] com. Accepted 23 February, 2012The modern world has seen an increase in interest in the areas related to the ethics of the sovereign good. A number of studies have focused on this subject matter and several academicians have exposed a number of ethical and philosophical dilemmas related to the concept of ethics in public administration. Despite the increasing number of studies that have focused on the importance of administrative ethics, there has been very little effort spent on identifying what exactly constitutes the crux of ethics in administration.The objective of this paper is to review the implications of the basic principles of ethics for public administration in the context of new public governance and discuss their impact on different administration imperatives which in turn act as the determinants of ethics in public administration. This review will also focus on the importance of ethics in new governance practices (privatization, decentralization, debureaucratization, devolution of budgets etc. ,) with reference to the push and pull of ethics and administration and how ethics mindsets and basic approaches to administration and governance can be changed.Key words: Ethics, public administration, ethical imperatives, ethics and public administration, ethics and morals. INTRODUCTION Since the 1970s there has been a great deal of change associated with the implementation of administrative ethics. These changes have been promoted and motivated by the concept of public administ ration in the new era. An important position is given to the concept of ethical issues in today’s civil governance. There has been a great deal of research associated with this concept which has been supported by translation of evidences and theories into practice across different continents.Frederickson and Ghere (2005) address both the managerial and individual/moral dimensions of ethical behavior as well as new challenges to administrative ethics posed by globalization. As promoted by Cooper (2001) ethics in public administration is not a transient concept but has proven to be an approach which has shown a great deal of sustainability which is fundamental to the area of public administration. Public administration has certain issues with regard to ethics implementation and finds it troublesome to come to terms with them. One reason for this is because ethics is embedded in an intellectual framework.This framework is based on stable institutional as well as role relationshi p levels, among both public employees as well as the organization. According to the views of a number of researchers (Bang and Sorensen, 1999; Keast et al. , 2004; Rhodes, 1996; Sorensen, 2002, 2006; Sorensen and Torfing, 2004; Stoker, 1998), current government perspectives believe that clarity and stability at these levels would be problematic. Despite the increasing number of studies that have focused on the importance of administrative ethics, there has been very little effort spent on identifying what is exactly the crux of ethics in administration (Cooper, 2004).This lack of directed research in the dynamics of operations with regards to ethics in public administration along with constant changes in the principles and policies associated with administrative ethics need to be examined. These developments have raised new topics for concern in this field. One example which can be cited at this juncture is the emergence of the concept of egovernance which would require the identifi cation of a whole new paradigm of ethics in public administration. This article tries to identify the ways in which administrative policies in public organizations can be 24 J.Public Adm. Policy Res. promoted and managed by adopting an effective and novel ethical approach. It would be prudent to mention the â€Å"ethics framework† here. The ethics framework (Bosseart and Demmke, 2005) is a voluntary, non-legally binding European Code of Ethics. It reflects the basic common values and standards which member states consider important for the proper functioning of public service. It comprehensively discusses the general core values, specific standards of conduct, actions to safeguard integrity and measures on handling situations where there has been possible violation of ethics.It helps to structure the discussion on public-service ethics and it serves as a toolkit or general guideline for the development of codes of conduct at a national and subnational level. Originally, the e thics framework identifies general core values that should be common to all member states. These values are the rule of law (â€Å"lawfulness†), impartiality/ objectivity, transparency (â€Å"openness†), accountability, professionalism (â€Å"expertise†), and duty of care, reliability (â€Å"confidence, trust†) and courtesy (â€Å"service principle†).If it is believed that these are the core values, then they should be fully recognised in every country. Public-service ethics is an issue that is taken seriously in every member state of the European Union. However, member states are at different stages of development and measures that are considered necessary in one country may be deemed irrelevant in others. The ethics framework has had a greater impact on those new member states that are currently fighting against corruption.In the case of old member states, the Framework has had smaller impact since the core values have traditionally been an integ ral part of their administrative culture and many of the tools proposed in the Framework were already in use. For example if one considers Portugal, an old member state where the administrative culture is traditional and core values are already a part of the administrative framework there are alterations in the form of codes of conduct which can be proposed in order to promote ethics in public administration.However the norms and regulations associated with the old administrative culture were not modified or removed. This resulted in two different viewpoints being promoted by the same government. This has resulted in a great deal of tension between traditional administrative culture and the new concepts of quality in public administration. NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND ETHICS Globally the concept of privatization has been promoted in new public administration. It is seen that this concept is related to the measures which promote establishment of efficiency and efficacy leading to ev elopment of quality deliverance of public services. In the research conducted by Savas (2000), the concept of â€Å"privatization in new public management†, is promoted. Further identified by Walsh et al. (1997) introduction of new market mechanisms which promote effective implementation of public services in organizations is identified. Walsh in his research has identified that privatization in governance in the United Kingdom has resulted in a new paradigm, which has promoted transformation of both organizational and cultural needs.The purpose of these reforms include reduction of cost relating to the actions of the governments, identification of measures to reduce the direct impact of action of public employees and bringing about a variation in the overall views of the government by the public. This type of privatization maneuver not only challenged the current realities associated with ethics in public administration, wherein administrators were considered as technical pr ofessionals, but also identified the type of functioning that does not take into account good judgment on the part of employees.Accordingly, intellectual proponents of the ethical perspective were responsible for the first noteworthy approach of public administrators’ ethical obligations and the importance of citizen participation in administrative decisions (Cooper, 2004). This has long been in place in developed countries across the world as seen with the NPM concepts promoted by Ronald Reagan in USA and Margaret Thatcher in the UK. REINVENTING GOVERNMENT As seen by Osborne and Gaebler (1992), it is observed that reinventing the government assumed importance in Bill Clinton’s administration.In his era, new concepts of public administration with regards to two different areas were promoted. The first, involved identification of factors which promoted the productivity of governance and the second involved setting a new vision and mission policy. It was proposed that th e productivity of governance can be increased by adopting more ethical measures in terms of distinguishing between the results and quantity of resources used. The use of a new mission policy will satisfy the needs of the general public. These measures may be identified to be less drastic when compared to the concept of privatization of governmental organizations.However this idea can be promoted and productivity increased only when there is a change in attitude towards current concepts of established hierarchy in governance. A move should be made toward promotion of methods to identify flexibility, centralization and concentration of public administration aspects. These aspects may be considered to be an intermediate solution to privatization. If it is not possible, delegation mechanisms can be a solution. With regard to the ethical position, the researcher advocates that privatization may not alter the fact that the responsibility of the state towards its citizens will be met.Radhi ka 25 Different processes which are to be supervised and controlled need to be realized by the government because ultimately the accountability and ethics of the action of the government to its citizens is needed. The scope and responsibilities of public administration changed due to the dynamics of new public management systems such as privatization, decentralization, debureaucratization and citizen partnership that are essentially new public management techniques and practices drawn mainly from the private sector and increasingly seen as a global phenomenon.These concepts shift the emphasis from traditional public administration to public management which accorded ethics a central position. The purpose of public service is to essentially fulfil a citizen’s basic requirements. Rocha (2000), observes that groups calling for professional management of public administration argue that they are more efficient and effective than the existing framework. They call for breaking down large institutions into manageable centres, thus allowing for independent functioning as part of the new economic institutional ideal.MORALS: THE RISE OF ETHICAL REASONING ABOUT MORALS Snell (1976) has maintained that it was Socrates, the founder of moral philosophy who enquired into the nature of ethics as his thoughts led him to the inner person rather than the external physical factors in 5 B. C. Morality’s choice of good and sound ethics was a natural means of developing a strong moral fibre. Socrates also felt that knowledge and morality were interrelated and one could not be moral if one did not know what morals were and what was good for mankind. Thus, he thought of virtue as being the centrepiece of nowledge and reasoned that virtue was knowledge. All thought and action therefore had to emanate from the knowledge of what was good or bad and then, be judged by ethical and moral standards. This would then lead to true happiness. (Vlastos, 1991), states that it was Socr ates’ idea that morality be linked to happiness because he felt ethics was about knowing what was good. Socrates’ thoughts also reached the common man through discourses and debates, and intense conversations, which constantly probed, questioned and thus, evoked reactions and insights while testing his views and theories through his now-famous dialogues.He felt constant engagement with the questions of virtue. He believed that morality would make people better as they would focus more on their own moral standards. DETERMINANTS ADMINISTRATION OF ETHICS IN PUBLIC public sector include: 1) The political construct of which public administrators are a part 2) The legal framework 3) The administrators and public employees who are responsible for the provision of public services 4) The citizens and users of public services that are a part of the civil society.First, the determinants of ethics in public administration with regard to the individual attributes of public/civil se rvants include ethical decision-making skills (Richardson and Nigro 1987), mental attitude (Bailey, 1964), virtues (Dimock, 1990; Dobel, 1990; Gregory, 1999; Hart, 1989), and professional values (Van Wart, 1998). Secondly, the organizational structure dimension is explained by clear accountability, collaborative arrangements, dissent channels, and participation procedures (Denhardt, 1988; Thomson, 1985).Third, the political organizational culture includes artefacts, beliefs and values, and assumptions (Schein, 1985). Leadership is important in the development, maintenance, and adaptation of organizational culture (Scott, 1982; Schein, 1985; Ott, 1989). Ethical behavior is encouraged when organizations have a climate where personal standards and employee education are emphasized, where supervisors stress the truth, and where employees regularly come together to discuss ethical problems (Bruce, 1995, 1994). Finally, societal expectation includes public participation, laws, and policie s.The advanced set of fundamental principles or criteria that integrate the process of dealing with ethical dilemmas in public administration are: 1) Democratic accountability of administration, 2) The rule of law and the principle of legality, 3) Professional integrity and 4) Responsiveness to civil society. This can be described as the ALIR model of imperatives of ethical reasoning in public administration. The research by Parsons (1964) presented the concept of ‘evolutionary universals in society’; wherein there are aspects associated with the identification of issues related to public administration ethics.In his Evolutionary Universals Parsons tied his functionalist theory to an evolutionary perspective and argued that, like biological organisms, societies progress through their ‘capacity for generalized adaptation’ to their environment. This is achieved mainly through processes of structural differentiation; that is, the development of specialized ins titutions to perform the social functions necessary to meet increasingly specialized needs. However, this increasing complexity then requires new modes of integration, in 1 The major determinants of administrative conduct in the ALIR- Accountability, Legality, Integrity, Responsiveness 26 J. Public Adm. Policy Res. order to co-ordinate the new and more specialized elements. This is achieved via the principle of the ‘cybernetic hierarchy’ or the increased information exchange or the growth of knowledge. Evolution is then from traditional to modern societies, and progress can be charted via the development (structural differentiation) of evolutionary universals such as bureaucratic organization, money and market complexes, stratification, and the emergence of generalized universalistic norms.Each of these enables a society to adapt more efficiently to its environment. The concepts of ALIR and Parsons’ evolutionary universals have some commonalities from the point o f view of public administration. The identification of a new type of governance which promotes evolutionary universality will be vital in democratically identifying the rule of law which is capable of carrying out its role as well as taking into consideration the tasks of the civil society. The researcher feels that this type of interdependence and connection will help in distinguishing between various concepts of ethics in public administration.This will also help extend morally and effectively the following four functional concepts: 1) Accountability of public bureaucracy which helps identifies the relationship between legitimate actions and its link to administration. 2) The rule of law and legality wherein public administration should be governed by the law. 3) Concepts of professional integrity and autonomy among public administrators which will ultimately help promote the principle of meritocracy. 4) Concepts of responsibility and immediate action of public administration to i ts citizens.Consequently, the artful application of such a set of moral commands in concrete situations and circumstances will bear witness to the particular kind of ethical reasoning that a specific administrative system or public institution is able to achieve and sustain. PRINCIPLES OF ETHICS It is important to concentrate on the two leading models(ethics of the sovereign good and ethics of the service of goods) that are involved with ethical thoughts and actions within the public sectors. Furthermore, we will also compare and contrast them with the collaborative ethics that were mentioned above.It has to be kept in mind that we are not taking any particular or specific approach but rather will be taking the modern understanding of could be called â€Å"vulgar Kantianism† or a â€Å"vulgar utilitarianism† (Harmon, 2005). Ethics of the sovereign good The ethics of the sovereign good is nothing but the set of guidelines based on which an individual acts. The ethics of the sovereign good is identified to be a set of values from which the different views on ‘what is good’ can be judged. It can be commonly seen in real world scenarios that many people have different versions of the same ethical concept.People try to twist the concept to fit their needs based on their conception of the â€Å"good†. Therefore it is important to identify the viewpoint that holds the true spirit of the ethical guidelines. Michael (2005, 2003) makes a compelling argument in â€Å"The public administration†, with regards to the ethics of the sovereign good. According to him it can be called ‘principled morality’. In his argument he talks about why one should not act on the principles set by the ethics of the sovereign good. An important reason is the issue of opposing principles.According to him, not all conflicts can be resolved by basing it on the ethics that are subscribed in the sovereign good. This is because ethics does not t ake into account a large number of variables that other principles apply to that particular scenario. The primary issue with the ethics of the sovereign good is the fact that it refers to itself as the absolute last word when it comes to ethical decisions. Another issue is that it tends to assume an attitude that is raw linguistic positivism.One reason why the ethic of the sovereign good is so appealing is that it tends to transcend beyond the individual and looks at the bigger collective when it comes to defining proper ethics. Therefore it will not solve the individual issues but will rather lead us into an unrecognized and impossible (from its perspective) aporia. Ethics of the service of goods The values that are promoted by the ethics of the service of goods are mainly efficiency and maximization of the inputs to outputs. Basically there are three aspects which are important when it comes to the service of goods.They are logic of reciprocity, its view of the collective, and its criteria for judgment. It can also be clearly seen that the ethics of the sovereign good are mainly targeted towards the market. At the very core, service of goods is based on mutual exchange. Basically it assumes that people are rational and have the freedom to choose what goods or services they want. Thus, if an individual likes a particular good/ service; he/she can enter into an agreement with a suitable trader on the terms for the purchase of the same service or good.In exchange the individual can offer monetary resources to compensate the trader for the services and goods that they have provided. This is an amicable process that is disrupted only when someone fails to deliver the goods as per the terms agreed to. This will result in the decline of the social good. However in the case when everything is going smoothly, what is good for the individual ends up being good for the collective Radhika 27 whole. There have been a lot of questions that have been directed towards the e thics of the service of goods.The questions that are raised are often related to the presumption of self-interest and about the ability of people to know their true interests. These questions are considered to be problematic for reasons both empirical and logical. According to different researchers (Bauman, 2001, 2005; Catlaw, 2009), viability is an issue since the ethics of the sovereign good tends to legitimize everything as long as it promotes trade and therefore in the long run has a tendency to wear away minimal stability . This stability is needed for an intelligible world with better ethics.It neglects the problem that one must always ask â€Å"efficient to what end†? â€Å"Or â€Å"good for whom†? Following this line of thought different imperatives need to be understood in the context of ethics in administration which are discussed subsequently. ACCOUNTABILITY IMPERATIVES The distinction between politics and administration, which forms one of the most classic doctrines of modern political science and public administration (Easton, 1953), connotes not only their division of functions and their structural separation but also the subordination of the latter to the former.This stream of thought also feels that politics is superior to administration and that the government controls the administrative machinery. Bureaucrats are loyal to their ministers, who in turn are loyal to the legislature, which is loyal to the people as they are their countrymen. Thus these ‘people’s representatives’ hold the administration accountable in the interests of the general public. Ministers are accountable to the Parliament and not civil servants and hence civil servants have to act as per the orders of their ministers whether they are in agreement or not as long as the law is not circumvented or breached.Subordination of civil servants to elected representatives who act as law-makers and policy-setters forms a sine qua non precondition of democratic politics. When the bureaucracy and administration usurps power, which does not belong to it; the bureaucracy (civil or military) enters the political arena, undermines representative democracy and subjugates politics and government to its own interests and commands. Thus, it falls upon the civil servants to work diligently under the legislature as these representatives actually reflect the will of the people. They also have to apply considerable restraint in partisan politics nd while expressing their personal views. Thus, democratic virtue is not a part of the core value of public administration and neither can the parliament usurp public service institutions for its own political ends. Modern governance celebrates the different roles and responsibilities of politics and administration as it leads to higher efficacy of both functions and that is an important part of moral and personal integrity-the ability to be able to tell the truth to the powers that be. LEGAL IMPERA TIVES Administrators have to respect the legal framework and act within its bounds thus rendering all government action legitimate.Law is a universal concept in both politics and society. (Reichstadt, Etat de Droit). Max Weber sees the action of a state within the law as the third way of legitimizing authority with the other two being, charisma and tradition. Once the administration works within the realm of the law, it automatically sets forth for itself a series of controls and regulations. Power flows from the people and thus all power must be used for the good of the people, a fundamental requirement of most democratic constitutions. Governments and administrations therefore have no choice but to work within the legal framework.Thus, the way the judiciary implements these laws which are there to ultimately serve the people forms the core of the legal determinants. Brown and Duguid (2000) state that courts ensure that the law will be followed during the discharge of public duty a nd that no injustice or partiality will do and that power will not be abused. Constant monitoring and protection of the law has to be a priority if administrative reforms are to take place. Even Aristotle commented that the law should be supreme in the eyes of the people and should operate without any interference.THE INTEGRITY IMPERATIVE Chapman (1959) states, as professional ethics entered the administrative space so did the need for studying public administration and defining its scope and determinants. The nation states of Europe among others 2 have taken steps to professionalize the government. (The ethics framework and the European code of ethics) Ministers guide the bureaucracy which discharges its public duties in conformity with the law. They are chosen on the basis of special criteria and procedures which govern their recruitment, career path, discipline, and scope etc.Professional virtue brings with it integrity and acceptance of the hierarchical dominance of the governme nt but works under the authority of the law. Argyriades (1996) observes that civil servants are the permanent officers of the transient politicians in Parliament. Their competency from experience, knowledge, depth etc. , helps them assess ground realities and advise the parliament and implement public policies in an effective manner in the interest of the public. The essential 2 The ethics framework: Available on http://forum. europa. eu. int/ 28 J. Public Adm. Policy Res. eatures of a professional public service which would include knowledge of expertise, of judgement and conduct in accordance to standards, as well as commitment to the field comprise the following: 1) Recruitment should be carried out on the basis of tests and merits conducted by separate bodies and governed by regulations that are independent of politics and political systems. It should take place impartially and solely consider merit and achievements. Merit, therefore is a huge determinant of integrity and autono my. 2) Self governance should be stressed on by administrative councils to promote corporate spirit and professionalism.Experience and length of service as well as achievements and performance must be taken into account for promotions. 3) Training and education should increase professionalism in government and administration as a whole. Professionalism in public service can be seen in people who have a very good knowledge of the job in which they are working at, their expertise and talent and their ability to adhere to the highest ethical standards. Thus a true professional is one who has an adequate mix of expertise, knowledge and experience and also those who can meet the public’s expectation of them.The general public and society have certain guidelines for various professionals who are expected to adhere to these standards. For example, corruption is frowned up on by the general public and therefore a true professional would be expected to follow such practices. Otherwise , the profession is deprived of an essential precondition of its claim to legitimacy. Corruption can be a major obstacle in the process of economic development and in modernizing a country. The greater recognition that corruption can have a serious adverse impact on development has been a cause for concern among developing countries.In a survey of 150 high level officials from 60 third world countries, the respondents ranked public sector corruption as the most severe obstacle confronting their development process (Gray and Kaufmann, 1998). Countries in the Asia and Pacific region are also very worried about this problem and they are in substantial agreement that corruption is a major constraint that is hindering their economic, political and social development, and hence view it as a problem requiring urgent attention at the highest level.An example of how corruption can affect a nations’ stability that can be cited at this point is the pandemic bureaucratic and political in stability in Nigeria which is the main cause of democratic instability in the country. Ogundiya (2010) argues that democratic stability will be difficult to attain as long as corruption remains pandemic and unchecked. According to Hegel (1967), â€Å"What the service of the state really requires is that men shall forego the selfish and capricious satisfaction of their subjective ends; by his very sacrifice, they acquire the right to find their satisfaction in, but only in, the dutiful discharge of their public functions†. It may be inferred from the aforementioned that there exists a link between the universal and particular interests. The government employee would then be expected to follow a code of ethics consolidating professional virtue and integrity. Another advantage of this is that by doing so, their self confidence and motivation will rise. This is applicable for any professional in any country. Integrity can be achieved through self control in administrative conduct based on ethical standards.THE IMPERATIVE FOR RESPONSIVENESS According to Hegel (1967), public servants worked solely for the state and not for society as it was the first, which determined the choice of citizens. The society as opposed to this was viewed by Hegel as being a total of specific and contrasting desires. This then became the sphere of the particular, of concrete persons with their own private ‘systems of needs and the efforts to satisfy them. Whereas the state served the general interest, civil society was the state of partial interests.In this somehow dichotomous idea of social construction, individuals actualize themselves while partaking in various activities in civil society and ‘in becoming something definite, that is, something specifically particularized' (Hegel, 1967). The state, however, with its system of governance and law provides the underlying conditions by which individuals and their actions may find their fullest fulfillment. For that reason , the state was for Hegel the ‘actuality of the ethical idea', that is the unity of the universal and the particular.Hegel’s ideas could be more properly comprehended if it is considered that he lived in a nation where many of the people were basically subjects with no role in the functioning of the government and hence a political life and convention such as the English have had was almost negligible. His work was an effort to spread awareness among the Germans about the political aspects of life. Gellner (1996) and Argyriades (1998) observe that without an expressive and self-sufficient civil society, no political life and even less democratic polity is likely to grow and flourish.Hence, civil society has been thought of as one of the most crucial requisites for freedom and democracy. The idea that was advocated by the beginning of the twenty-first century was that the state must neither direct civil society nor be submissive to it. Rather it should stress and pitch i n the task of building social capital to the advantage of the human race which is involved. Hence, juggling an alert state and an active civil society poses a good plan for improving the standards and the future for democratic tasks.In this respect, the ‘civic virtue' of ethical reasoning in state action entails that public institutions be responsive Radhika 29 to society and pay attention to the needs and demands of the people, facilitating access to services and creating an enabling environment for sustainable human and social development. (Bovens, 1998) states, alertness is not confined to market authorities but is majorly involved in the citizens’ role in to every extent and in every tier of the government, and it also involves giving power to people in human groups.Responsiveness also entails consultation in governance and the promotion of a kind of ‘communicative ethic’ (Habermas, 1987) in societal affairs. The transition, however cumbersome it may be , from the command type of authority over people to more communicative types of reasoning and administration of things seems to emerge as a radical paradigm shift in societal affairs. In this context, civil society not only furnishes the state with needs and demands of an individual nature, but also with valuable sources of information, feedback criticism and evaluation of performance.Therefore, notions like decentralization, de-bureaucratization, privatization and citizen participation loom large in the repertoire of reform programmes and practices of many contemporary administrative systems, and affect the interface between civil society and the state. It also influences the interaction between the state and the civil society. (Buchanan, 1985) observes that society has ceased to be just the concern of state actors and molded by bureaucracy, on the contrary it is now in the purview of the active citizen’s concern.Naturally, ‘a country's view of public administration re flects its underlying philosophy of society and the state' (Chapman, 1959). State officials are affected by the way the public at large regards them. Eventually, civil servants forming a middle-class profession, par excellence, acquire the features that society expects of them. Public administration forms a partial regime in the societal complex; it is part of the state, which is subject to a distinct ‘ethic of responsibility' – in the Weberian sensevis-a-vis the society. The ideas of alertness and accountability and answerability have some similarity.These ideas also have overlaps. In spite of the number of meanings they have, it cannot be ignored that the basic aspect concerns duty and the preparedness of civil servants to honestly rationalize and defend their moves for public good. NEW ETHICAL APPROACH Denhardt and Denhardt (2002) argue that public administrators influence, and are influenced by, all of the competing standards, values, and preferences of the complex governance system. These variables not only influence, and are influenced by, public administrators; they also represent points of accountability.They plead for a â€Å"new public service† instead of â€Å"new public management† under the slogan â€Å"serving rather than steering. † Maesschalk (2001) defines the new public service approach as a viable third alternative to the observed dichotomy between â€Å"the old public administration† and â€Å"the new public management,† paying considerable attention to the development of a new ethic for public servants. The new public service authors largely join the traditionalist group in their negative assessment of the ethical consequences of NPM reforms.They propose new mechanisms in which â€Å"the primary role of the public servant is to help citizens articulate and meet their shared interests rather than to attempt to control or steer society. † It is necessary to have a management which makes available the standardization of professional ethical values, and an Aristotelian procedure of absorbing constant adjustments. This achievement resides in true ethics-based politics, which is standardized and universal. It is a must to move from forced bureaucratic demands to more agreement-based behaviour for public good.Thus the current reality needs creative methods and clubbed techniques. Hence we recommend that a public governance moral structuring could include the following aspects: 1) Instruments for answerability 2) Supervising systems through local and outside question forms 3) Forging of helpful measures to motivate moralistic attitudes award ethical acts 4) Application of audit techniques at an Intergovernmental level 5) Official socialization (for example, structuring, knowledge and guidance) 6) Establishing of whistle-blowing mechanisms cautiously 7) A greater plea for an active citizenry. ) Outlining managerial tasks 9) Effective communication. Management of ethics Th e concept of ethics is naturally reliant on genuine political desire. In this manner there is sufficient scope to establish a holistic moral code in an inclusive, organised fashion. Stand-alone steps are of no use. By evolving certain mechanisms for moral functioning, one can provide solutions for conflict of ethics, difficulties, and other scenarios.It is also helpful to encourage the growth of instruments and techniques which can predict difficulties related to ethics and beneficial to propose solutions in a more agreeable manner. Unsurprisingly, the basic principle and aim of worthy administrations are, according to Aristotle, to habituate citizens and civil workers to the inculcation of virtue. This is validated by the events in states, for law makers who mould citizens to act properly by inculcating good habits in them. It is the desire of every law maker and as for 0 J. Public Adm. Policy Res. those who cannot succeed; this is what distinguishes an effective polity from a bad one. Aristotle is of the view that the main role of the governor is to facilitate moral literacy for citizens. To be able to do so, he or she will need a lot of awareness, knowledge of virtue, and that kind of awareness can only come through a perpetual quest and enquiry about things and acts. Morality is basically about questioning. This is the main advantage of human life else it is an unworthy life.Life which has not been exposed to tests is unacceptable to humans said Socrates, in his exceptional Apology (38 A) for a moralistic stand in life. Dealing with administration ethical dilemmas in public Hart (1961) states that at the time of facing basic queries about what to do and which manner to behave in complicated scenarios and the degree to which opposed values or choice factors could be used in the scenario, one ventures in the region of ethical confusions or of â€Å"hard choices†. A dilemma is a concept which is broader and more exacting than a problem no matter how to ugh or complicated it is.The reason is that dilemmas, unlike problems, cannot be solved in the terms in which they are initially presented to the decision-maker. Being entangled in a dilemma, the choice-maker is not just confronted with contradictory and unwanted substitutes, worse, the impossibility of their being matched also means that they are separate in the sense that one can only be fulfilled if the other is not taken care of. Hence a scenario of a dilemma could result a no-win game in which the decision of one worthy substitute is always adhered to by the negation of the other.Addressing the dilemma in such a fashion would then be an opposition in terms and an aberration as the answer which is arrived at would appear to be no good and signify a complete break-up of the entangled factors of the matters to be solved. A difficulty could however be managed properly if the conditions of reference changed and the entire scenario was restructured so that focus be given to all optio ns which are organised and connected among themselves in a more orderly and sensible way. Obviously, dilemmas are many in complicated establishments, which cannot solve them properly.As an outcome, state officials and civil servants witnessing sharp dilemmas cannot but help being confused and embarrassed unwillingly. In such scenario, public governance rather than operating in the manner in which it is supposed to, lapses into a condition of chaos and uncertainty. It is in this case that moral ambiguity and lack of lucidity about larger values to direct choices and tasks in hard events may cause unbridled scepticism and a cynical attitude. Naturally, dilemmas abound in complex organizations, which fail to tackle them effectively.As a result, state officials and civil servants exposed to acute dilemmas can hardly help succumbing to a state of confusion and embarrassment in which they are often quite unwillingly thrust. In circumstances like these public administration instead of func tioning as a well ordered state of legitimate purposes degenerates into a state of confusion and indeterminacy. It is then that the case of ethical vagueness and lack of clarity about overall values to guide action and choices in ‘hard cases' comes about in administration.But if everything stands and anything goes, then nothing can be taken seriously, neither ethics and values nor rights and duties of public servants and citizens alike. The growing group of basic tenets or aspects that unite and restructure the procedure of handling ethical dilemmas in public governance are: (1) democratic answerability of governance, (2) the application of law and the notion of legality, (3) official honesty, and (4) alertness to civil society needs. CONCLUSION Even prior to the close of the twentieth century, it was apparent that states, governments, and public entities were venturing into an era of change.This was basically a period of change and not a model-based shift from dictatorial, ce ntrally-powerful states to increasingly free and consultative kinds of social communication between the people and the administrators. A different set of equations between politics, economy, culture, and civil society has been the trigger for new research on more inputs and restructuring of the responsibilities of the state and those of the public services with regard to the society and the economy. The planning for moral improvement in the public sector throws up uge questions impacting the nature of democracy, law, motivation and ethics in the public domain, and the state’s communication with civil society. There is not much uncertainty that clashing demands can make governance appear inconsistent. As a matter of fact, every one of the ALIR requirements for moralistic rationalizing if taken to its extreme would be a big hurdle rather than an asset. Some disagreements between constituents of an entity which upset the state of larger conditions can only be set right if justic e at par is given to every one of them; or rather if it dispenses what is apt to all.Not surprisingly, for Aristotle justice is the balance of passions and actions, and moral virtues reside in middle states (Lasswell, 1971). The basic aim would therefore be not the triumph of one principle or ethical imperative over the other, but rather the reduction of incongruence among them and the provision of conditions for their harmonious coexistence, mutual support and complementary fulfillment. Turning mutually exclusive dilemmas into solvable problems would then require a holistic and reflexive approach to Radhika 31 ethical reasoning.Thus modernity and change in public administration is not just applicable towards the civil society but also the civil service and public administration in a number of different ways both locally and internationally. Therefore when it comes to public administration, ethics must provide a fair degree of flexibility when it comes to framing a rational decision . It can be seen that public administrators are best placed to answer someone’s need. Thus, there is a pressing need to place morality and ethics first in the public administration of today. REFERENCES Argyriades D (1996).Neutrality and Professionalism in the Public Service. Haile K. Asmeron and Elsa P. Reis (Eds) Democratization and Bureaucratic Neutrality. London. Macmillan, pp. 45-77. Argyriades D (1998). The Role of Civil Society in the Modern State. The Inter. J. Tech. Co-operation, 4: 237-245. Bailey K (1964). Ethics and the Public Service. Publ. Adm. Rev. , 24(4): 234-243. Bang HP, Sorensen E (1999). The everyday maker: A new challenge to democratic governance. Adm. Theory Praxis, 31: 325-341. Bossaert D, Demmke C (2005). Main Challenges in the Field of Ethics and Integrity in the EU Member States. Eur. Inst. Publ.Adm. , p. 270. Bovens M (1998). The Quest for Responsibility: Accountability and Citizenship in Complex Organizations. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, p. 252. Bruce WM (1994). Ethical People Are Productive People. Publ. Prod. Manage. Rev. , 17: 241-252. Bruce WM (1995). How Municipalities in Ten Countries Promote Administrative Ethics. Hong Kong Publ. Adm. , 4(1): 55-75. Caiden G (1991). Administrative Reform Comes of Age. Los Angeles: De Gruyter, p. 347. Catlaw TJ (2009). Public Administration and the Lives of Others, Toward an Ethics of Collaboration Administration and Society, 41: 290-312.Chapman B (1959). The Profession of Government. The Public Service in Europe. London, Unwin University Books, p. 64. Cooper LT (2001). The Emergence of Administrative Ethics as a Field of Study in the United States. Handbook of Administrative Ethics, pp. 1-36. Cooper LT (2004) Big Questions in Administrative Ethics: A Need for Focused, Collaborative Effort. Washington D. C. , Publ. Adm. Rev. , 64(4): 395-407 Denhardt JV, Denhardt RB (2002). The New Public Service: serving, not steering. Publ. Adm. Rev. , 60: 549-559. Dimock M (1990). The Rest orative Qualities of Citizenship. Publ. Adm. Rev. 50: 21-25. Dobel JP (1990). Integrity in the Public Service. Publ. Adm. Rev. , 50: 354-366. Easton D (1953). The Political System. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, p. 189. Gellner E (1996). Conditions of Liberty, Civil Society, and its Rivals. London. Penguin Books, p. 225. Giddens A (1990). The Consequences of Modernity. Stanford University Press, p. 188 Gray CW, Kauffman D (1998). Corruption and Development. Financ. Dev. , 35(1): 1-4 Gregory RJ (1999). Social Capital Theory and Administrative Reform. Maintaining Ethical Probity in Public Service. Publ. Adm. Rev. , 59: 63-75. Habermas J (1987).The Theory of Communicative Action (1 ed. ). London. Heinemann, pp. 85-101. Hart DK (1989). A Partnership in Virtue among All Citizens: The Public Service and Civic Humanism. Publ Adm.. Rev. , 49: 101-105. Hart H (1961). The Concept of Law. Oxford: Clarendon Press, p. 315. Hegel G (1967). Philosophy of Right translated by T. M. Knox. Oxfo rd: Oxford University Press, p. 13. Keast R, Mandell M, Brown K, Woolcock G (2004). Network Structures: Working Differently and Changing Expectations. Publ. Adm. 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Accounting Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Accounting - Research Paper Example l not only affect the reporting style and responsibility of the public companies but will also affect the private companies of the United States since both the public and private companies relied upon the GAAP for the preparation of their financial statements. It is a notable fact that even today some of the US private companies apply the IFRS to meet their reporting requirements, particularly the companies that have foreign related parties or investors that use the IFRS. There has been a debate over the past few years that the extensive reporting requirements of US GAAP have increased the cost of reporting for both the public and private companies although some of the more composite requirements may not even apply on the private companies. The AICPA (American Institute of Chartered Public Accountants) has carried out certain studies to observe the relevance and fulfillment of requirements of the users of the financial statements of private companies as to whether the US GAAP compliance is beneficial to the users. The study has resulted in the fact that some of the more extensive and complex requirement of the US GAAP have more cost than benefit to the users. This may be because the users of financial statements of public company and the private company have different objectives as the public company financial statement users are mainly investors while the private company users are more concerned with management and short-term affairs of the company. This debate has also given rise to a further debate hat whether a standalone reporting standards be prepared to meet the requirements of the private companies as some countries have already put forward this point. In this regard, the IASB has already begun working on reporting standards for Medium and Small Enterprises which are known as the IFRS for Private Entities. These IFRS for private entities only cover those entities that are exempt from public accountability which has made it relevant for any entity that

Toys R Us Company Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Toys R Us Company - Research Paper Example The Toys â€Å"R† Us firm went public during 1978 and started to branch out its products (Brohan, par 3). In the 1980’s Toys â€Å"R† Us stretched out into global markets as well as expanded its brand line to encompass children’s clothing. In the 1990’s, Toys â€Å"R† Us further grew into the baby product marketplace with Babies â€Å"R† Us (Lombardi, par 4). Additionally, Toys â€Å"R† Us assimilated the renowned New York toy store FAO Schwarz together with its online websites during 2009. Items from this New York high-end shop are now in Toys â€Å"R† Us stores too (Brohan, par 4). Toys â€Å"R† Us Inc. runs more than eight hundred and seventy five Babies â€Å"R† Us and Toys â€Å"R† Us shops within the U.S., more than six hundred and twenty five worldwide stores as well as over one hundred and forty licensed shops within 35 nations as well as its jurisdictions. Toys â€Å"R† Us board of dir ectors is comprised of nine members with Gerald Storch as the Chairman as well as the Chief Executive officer (Brohan, par 6). In an ever developing online retailing marketplace, Toys â€Å"R† Us has also developed itself as a virtual retailer. Toys â€Å"R† Us operates many online retail websites. Babiesrus.com and toysrus.com have various international websites and are among the highly visited websites for clients looking for kids’ products (Lombardi, par 5). ... During 2012 Toys â€Å"R† Us sales of toys went down by a percentage of 3.5 to 20.47 billion dollars within the U.S, the global major toy market, rendering to a research company NPD Group. Previously, Toys â€Å"R† Us articulated that its same-stores sales within the US had gone down by 4.5% within the 9 weeks from 28th October to 29th December, a crucial time for toys’ sales (Brohan, par 8). Toys â€Å"R† Us total sales of toys went down by 4.7% in that period. Toys â€Å"R† Us Inc. has not stated toys’ sales results for its current fiscal year. During the year that concluded during 2012, January, same-store sales went down at home as well as within the global business, whereas total sales rocketed from 45 million dollars to 13.9 billion dollars (Lombardi, par). From this analysis, the Toys â€Å"R† Us Inc. is feasible to venture into emerging markets such as India. Despite the toy sales drop, Toys â€Å"R† Us total sales incre ment shows that the company can afford to venture new markets or emerging markets, which can boost its toy sales and generate more returns for the company (Brohan, par 5). India’s economic development was grounded upon socialist-inspired policies following the independence. It encompassed state-ownership of numerous sectors, regulations as well as red tape that was referred to as ‘License Raj’ in addition to safeguarding from the global markets. India’s political economy has rapidly transmuted with the economy’s liberalization during the 1990s (Maps of India, par 1). India has currently moved into a market-based structure and it is the global second speediest growing quintessential economy following China. India documented the highest gross domestic product rate of 9 percent in 2007. India’s growth has currently reached 7.5

Strategic Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Strategic Management - Assignment Example In this definition, the scope and direction of the strategy and the configuration of resources are within the purview of the organization. External competitive forces determine the 'environment' in which the organization works. Michael Porter (2004) describes five such forces that have an effect on the competitiveness of an organization. These five forces comprise the 'outside-in' business strategy tool as diagrammatically depicted below: 1.1. About Alitalia: Alitalia is the smallest of Europe's full service airlines (after the merger of KLM with Air France and Swissair with Lufthansa) in terms of revenues generated, flights operated and passengers flown and other financial parameters. (See Table-1 below. Table-2 provides comparative statistics for low budget airlines) Alitalia (Alitalia - Linee Aeree Italiane S.p.A) has been operating as a full service airline that flies passengers and cargo for sixty years. Alitalia is Italy's national airline with the government holding 49% equity (other shareholders including employees hold 49% and Air France holds 2%). The airline has a fleet of 177 aircraft and flies to 102 destinations in Italy, Europe, the middle and far East Asia, Africa and the Atlantic. Alitalia has modernized its fleet keeping in view the distances and load factors involved in various sectors. In fact the company boasts of operating one of the youngest and most efficient fleets in the world. During the year 2005, 24 million passengers flew Alitalia, which represented a growth rate of 7.8% year on year over 2004. In April 2004, the company acquired the bankrupt regional airline Gandalf Airlines to gain additional slots at several European airports, mainly Milan (Linate) and Paris (Charles De Gaulle). In September 2004 the company sought to lay off almost 5000 employees to avoid bankruptcy and possible liquidation. A vicious fight ensued with employees unions striking work which finally ended with government intervention and provision of a bridging loan. There was a proposal to merge the company with Air France-KLM but it petered out. During this period, to save costs, the company was, splicd into two holding companies. They are Alitalia Fly which controls Alitalia Express, Volare SpA, Volare Airlines and Air Europe. The company holds 51% equity in the new formation Alitalia Servizi which controls the following: Alitalia Airport which operates ground handling services in Rome Fiumicino, Palermo, Cagiliary and passenger handling services in Catania and Naples; Alitalia Mainatenance Systems 40% of which is owned by Lufthans

Cultural Diversity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Cultural Diversity - Essay Example The choice of this article is based on the interest in the more or less resilient Hispanic culture as represented even in the culturally dynamic developed countries. Hispanic culture remains stiff in terms of retention of traditional values and is represented in many countries of the world. Hispanic culture is in totality a reflection of Spain, Latin America and most countries in the Central America let alone being represented in large numbers in the US, European countries, some parts of Spain colonies in Africa and in Far East (Luna, 2003, p331). The article covers an emerging Hispanic folk healing as a nursing care approach where bilingual nurses integrate a cultural health care practice, curanderismo (meaning Hispanic folk healing), into modern nursing care, a move that has seen better health outcomes being realized in the US for the minority Hispanic group. Article Summary Luna’s article (2003) is an outsider’s eye on the Hispanic folk healing as a meaningful approa ch to health care in today’s times among the minority Hispanic groups living in the US. It introduces curanderismo as a renowned survival tactic in health care in history as old as 15th century. In the article, Luna (2003, p329) justifies cultural health interventions by linking them to the survival of humankind through medieval ages before modern biomedical models came to be. Today, the success of curanderismo in nursing is no longer thought of as magical as most people used to believe but an approach that has proven curative values (Luna, 2003, p333). The article primarily focuses on, other than just plain justification, real benefits of especially the use of curanderismo among other culturally and/or traditionally inclined medical care approaches. First is the regional benefit for the user. Using locally available plants and herbs, curanderismo is only traditional knowledge required for one to heal. With such a mechanism language between the caregiver or the nurse and the patient is no longer a barrier. Second benefit in line is the little economic input required. The nurse-curanderas (Hispanic folk healers or nurses) use plants and herbs, in a similar way the Asians do, and therefore capital resources required are basically cheap and locally available – and thus low-cost services. Compared to today’s escalating costs in modern physicians and health care delivery systems, a blending with the low-cost curanderismo reduces health care costs for the American minority groups with Hispanic origin. Therefore, in a way, curanderismo is a socio-economically friendly approach in this context, especially in US where the health insurance system has failed. The nurse-curanderas, in addition, have learned to use two languages – American English and Hispanic. Luna (2003) refers to these nurses and bilingual nurse-curanderas, who in their capacity as nurses are particularly effective in giving necessary care even to aboriginal Hispanics who may be completely locked to Hispanic language and culture. While some groups somehow distrust modern health services, curanderismo and the likes provide additional alternatives (Luna, 2003, p330). Interpreting Luna’s Article into real life practice In modern world, health care, like most other industries, faces difficult controversial issue of diversity of cultures (Sagar, 2011, p13). Due to globalization, modern health facilities are flocked with patients of different cultural

Development of Global Managers Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Development of Global Managers - Research Paper Example The companies now need strategic capabilities in three major business areas including global scale efficiency, local responsiveness and capability of leveraging worldwide. The notion of global manager is not very new however it has got momentum is recent time when the business world all over globe are witnessing the transformational changed led by the technology advancements. The concept of global managers has evolved over the time with the expectation of fulfilment of these objectives however, it is also a fact that no single global manager could perform all of these tasks for a business and generally group of specialized managers is developed for the management of company matters worldwide (Steers, et al, 2010). . The development of global managers is an important issue for the companies operating internationally because the global managers are made and not born. The development of the global managers appears to be foremost question for the corporate managers because they have to a ssure that the right person has got the right training and capabilities to work at the right place for generating the desired results. The concept of global managers is not very new and since the development of the notion there is extensive research work conducted around the topic in order to explore the issue from various perspectives (Bartlett and Ghoshal 2003). It has been unveiled that mainly these used to be three types of global managers including business manager, country manager and functional manager. The global business or product division manager has the responsibility to build efficiency and competitiveness of the company all around the world by recognizing cross border opportunities and risks. The country managers work as building block for worldwide operations of the company by providing detailed understanding and interpretation of local markets and building local capabilities and resources. The third type of global manager is worldwide functional specialist that trans fers the expertise from one unit to another and works for leverage learning, generation of good ideas and best business practice of the companies (Kediaa and Mukherji, 1999). Development of Global Managers – Current Issues The international business operations require constructing internationally competent workforces that must be comprise of the people having adequate information about the business. This requirement is also fulfilled by the global managers that are expected to be highly flexible and open minded. The building of such team is not a simple task and sometimes the companies take years to come up with the team of perfectly chosen global managers to organize their worldwide operations in adequate manner (Steers, et al, 2010). It is now impossible for the multinational companies to consult and reply upon single manager or specialist for effective management of their operations in any country because they must have team of global managers with multicultural experience so that they could recognize the cultural differences affecting the business activities and communication as well as working relationship within the company (McNally and Parry, 2000). Traditionally the businesses use to reply upon single country managers or expert for the management of the cross border business matters however, the increased trend of international business has changed the situation and the companies are required to give special attention towards allocation of management duties to competent

Art History Comparcomparisons Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Art History Comparcomparisons - Assignment Example To achieve this inspiring effect, each building makes heavy use of stairs to gain entry and tall columns representing the measurements of the Golden Rule to express both their impressive size and their perfection of form. Despite the fact that the Altar of Zeus was built with the Parthenon in mind, builders opted to use Ionic columns that were considered more modern than the Doric style used in the earlier building. In addition to the actual construction, both structures use life-sized or taller statues to celebrate the greatness of the civilization that constructed it while also telling the story of the gods as a means of honoring the power and wisdom of the ruler of the day. The Parthenon’s friezes depicted scenes of battles between the gods and mythological races such as the giants and the centaurs, as well as the defeat of the Amazons and what is believed to be the citizens of Troy, images that are repeated by obvious Parthenon inspiration in the Altar of Zeus. However, the Altar of Zeus concentrates on depicting scenes from battles between the gods and the giants, rather than illustrating scenes with the other races. The buildings might have been used in different ways as well. While the use of the Parthenon is in some debate, definitely used as a treasury and possibly also as a temple, the Altar to Zeus was built specifically to be a temple. Comparing these two images, there are several immediately obvious similarities, most prominent being the large domes of each, the vertical columns and the predominantly square base structure. There remain some significant differences as well. Even though the dome of the Church of Hagia Sophia seems to be larger, thanks to the emphasis it receives by the vertically reinforcing influence of the tall windows along its sides, the dome of the Pantheon is actually somewhat larger, having been considered the largest dome in architecture.  Ã‚  

Leadership Principles Essay Example for Free

Leadership Principles Essay Abstract This paper explores the definition of leadership, and how applying the principles of leadership can yield more success for teams in the workplace. It also serves to further explore personality self-evaluation and how personality traits help to define an individual’s leadership likely traits and strengths. Reference will be made to personality assessments such as the â€Å"Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator† (MBTI) and the â€Å"Big-Five Approach to Personality Assessment†, and what those assessments imply about an individual. While individuals tend to demonstrate particular trends and traits in relation to the personality assessments, the results are not absolute, and in no way offer definitive information about an individual’s specific characteristics (Scholl 2002). Detailed exploration of particular aspects and principles will yield a more refined working knowledge of leadership and practical applications in the workplace, specifically self-awareness and personal recognition of individual characteristics and learning styles. A summary with findings and conclusions will conclude the paper. Leadership Leadership is the ability to get a group to achieve greater accomplishments and achievements than the sum of individuals’ actions. Leadership means taking advantage of opportunities and finding ways to improve upon a situation, whether or not someone else gave you the empowerment to accomplish those goals (Blanchard, Fowler, and Hawkins, 2005, p. 15). Leaders have the innate ability to observe a scenario, realize what needs to happen to realize results, seize the moment and guide others to work together to accomplish a common goal. Ultimately, â€Å"a leader is anyone who can give you the support and direction you need to achieve your goal.† (Blanchard et al, 2005, 133). Self-Evaluation Every person is an individual, and as individuals they naturally have unique personality traits that affect how they interact and interact with others in the world. Personal assessment is a valuable tool that allows an individual to realize their own unique traits and tendencies, allowing them to be aware of precognitive tendencies that they might demonstrate in given situations. For me personally, I was assessed using the MBTI method to be an introvert, who tends to be slightly sensing, somewhat thinking, and strongly judging (https://www.typefocus.com). At first, I took some offence to being categorized in this method, but after researching the general description of my personality, as well as specific definitions of the preference categories, I came to realize that this information would ultimately empower me to become a stronger and more capable leader in the future. A summary of careers suggest that I could become a strong manager that would enjoy a workplace where I could use m y knowledge and organizational skills. I am likely to enjoy occupations that involve working with, communicating with, and teaching people. (https://www.typefocus.com). I am able to ascertain that my personality traits suggest I am a person who is capable of teaching others my knowledge and other applicable skills. I am a leader who possesses both information power as well as expert power (Yukl, 2011, p. 193) Another assessment that helped me to understand about my character was the Big-Five Approach to Personality Assessment (Scholl, 2002). The Big-Five assessment provided five factors, along with several more specific traits and facets that help individuals understand and recognize concerning their personality. The five factors, or domains, are neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. My low scoring on the neuroticism portion suggests that I am a confident, optimistic individual who is even tempered and relaxed; able to face stressful situations without becoming upset (Scholl, 2002). I had a low extraversion score, suggesting that I am reserved and interpersonally formal; an independent thinker rather than a follower (Scholl, 2002). In the domain of openness, my score was almost dead center, suggesting that I do not have strong tendencies one way or the other (Scholl, 2002). I believe that this suggests that my reaction depends on the situation and the environment surrounding it. I can be curious and imaginative about certain situations, but cautious and conservative for others. Personal morals and ethics strongly influence my openness, whereas I am open to new ideas and thinking about scenarios, as long as they do not violate my personal ethical standards. For agreeableness, my slightly higher than center score suggests that I am for the most part a generous, trusting person who is sympathetic to others. At the same time, I can be suspicious and impatient with those who have disappointed me in the past. This is one aspect that I need to be aware of my past, and how it influences my present and future. I once had an assistant who I trusted complicity attempt to stage a mutiny to attempt to remove me from my position. Thankfully, my employees had enough ethical standards to make me aware of the decision, so that I could deal with the situation through the proper channels. However, as a result of that situation I have found it much more difficult to trust subordinates, and I tend to be suspicious of actions that could be viewed as disloyal and insubordinate to me as a manager and leader. For the final domain, conscientiousness, my score was again dead center, but the results for this particular section made me think more deeply about myself. I had always thought that I demonstrated the traits associated with someone who scores high for conscientiousness, but I must accept the fact that I may have tendencies that are normally for those scoring low. For me to be successful, I must constantly be aware of these traits, and be able to recognize and adjust my actions when I act in a way that is not conscientious. The guidelines representing how to promote emotional intelligence in the workplace (https://www.eiconsortium.org) suggested twenty-two steps to assess the situation, instigate change, then transfer power and evaluate how everything worked. The company I formerly worked for must have been influenced by these guidelines, as I had been introduced to the process years ago, and was a continual body of work for me as a retail manager. For every employee that was hired, whether full or part time, I had to assess them as an employee, and implement a training program that would yield the best results for the company. Teaching has always been a passion of mine, and I enjoyed showing how every employee had an impact on our store, and their effort and personal pride could have far reaching impact on our daily success, both for sales and customer satisfaction. The process of encouraging transfer and maintenance of  change was mainly designated for the management team, but that was an essential process for our team. I simply could not do it alone: I needed every member of the management to perform to their potential, so that we could function as a team, and each member of management would learn and better their skills for the next advancement opportunity that might come along. It was through this process that I was able to train and advance several members of management, many of whom are now store managers with their own stores to run. Leadership Style My personal leadership style is supportive leadership. I will always try to empower others around me to be aware of their potential, and support them when they need assistance. As Yukl suggests, I use my interpersonal skills to be supportive and compassionate with others as they try to get their work done (Yukl, 2011, p. 64). I attempt to learn more about an individual’s personality, so that I can find a way to best assist them in their own growth and leadership potential. That requires a being a coach who is sometimes there to boost their confidence, and at other times kick them in the rear when they are not putting forth their best effort. At the same time, I realize that it is not possible to provide the motivation for everyone. Every individual has different motivations, and ultimately must take responsibility for creating their own work environment (Blanchard et al, 2005, p.29). I am aware that to be a successful leader, I need to be able to not only empower others, but to show them how to be leaders unto themselves. Every individual needs to be aware of their own strengths and powers before they can lead themselves (Blanchard et al, 2005, p.62), and I plan help others find their way to lead themselves, and ultimately lead others to success. References Blanchard, K., Fowler, S., Hawkins, L. (2005). Self Leadership and the One Minute Manager: Increasing Effectiveness Through Situational Self Leadership. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishing, Inc. Buckingham, Marcus (2005). The One Thing You Need to Know†¦About Great Managing, Great Leading, and Sustained Individual Success. New York, NY: Free Press. Lencioni, Patrick (2002). The Five Dysfunctions of a Team: A Leadership Fable. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Scholl, Richard (2002). Dispositions: The Big 5 Personality Assessment. Retrieved from University of Rhode Island, Labor Research Center Web site: http://www.uri.edu/research/lrc/scholl/webnotes/Dispositions_Big_5.htm Yukl, Gary (2011). Leadership In Organizations, Eighth Edition. San Francisco, CA: Pearson Education, Inc.

Capitalization Exercise Essay Example for Free

Capitalization Exercise Essay The patient is a 55-year-old African American, who speaks French and Chinese, presenting with a chief complain of chest pain. He has been having mild chest pain since early autumn, but it has been increasing recently, especially over the holidays. He has been taking Dyazide for blood pressure and also uses ibuprofen occasionally. On Sunday, New Year’s Day, he called his insurance company and was referred to South Side Hospital. The patient presented to the emergency department for evaluation and was noted to have T-wave inversions on his ECG. Chest x-ray showed no pneumonia or pulmonary edema.

Marketing Analysis Of Virgin Media Marketing Essay

Marketing Analysis Of Virgin Media Marketing Essay Services marketing are a form of marketing which focuses on selling services. Services can be tricky to sell and the marketing approach for them is much different than the approach for products. Some companies offer both products and services and must use a mixture of styles; for example, a store which sells phone also tends to offer services such as helping people select phone as contract and providing broadband service and phone repair. Such a store must market both its products and the supporting services it offers to appeal to customers. Virgin Media is an innovative new media company that was formed as a result of a merger between NTL and Telewest and then a re-branding as Virgin Media. Its main strength lies in the branding and the innovation that the name Virgin offers. Internally, Virgin Media is the only company in the United Kingdom that offers all four of the main media services, i.e. digital television, broadband, fixed line telephone and mobile phone packages. The ability to offer these products all together in one bundle is the unique selling point of Virgin Media and clearly sets the company apart from its competitors. Swot analysis is the most important and first stage of planning. It is a feedback mechanism to make new strategies for any organisation. Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats are the four components of a swot analysis. Weaknesses and Strengths are correlated and examine the internal part of the business analysis whereas Opportunities and Threats deal with the external environment of business operation. Weaknesses and strengths refer to aspect of marketing, finance, manufacturing or organisational structure. Swot analysis helps clarifies the objectives of the organisation Strengths In offering these combined services, the company has substantial economies of scale as it is able to combine many of its generic roles such as administration and finance, thus allowing the company to price more competitively for the benefit of its customers. Due to its perceived leading brand name in the media, Virgin Media has managed to secure an ongoing contract with Sky, extending further still its inclusive offering to its customers. Technical ability and infrastructure are also two of the key internal strengths of the company, which have been exploited to produce a market leading position. Weaknesses Despite this, the company does have some internal weaknesses that need to be managed. The merger between NTL and Telewest is still relatively new and there are cultural clashes between the two styles and the emerging Virgin style. In recent years, there have been several redundancies and outsourcing of customer services, in an attempt to bring down costs. This has resulted in a degree of unsettled behaviour and lack of loyalty from staff. Due to the size and complexity of the growing organisation, there are likely to be ongoing conflicts which will need to be managed if this cultural shift is not to impact on the customer experience. Opportunities and Threats Externally, the opportunities and threats facing Virgin Media are ever changing. The media sector is developing an exceptionally fast pace, resulting in both opportunities and threats for companies such as Virgin Media. Opportunities are widely available for Virgin Media, predominantly in offering value added services such as online gaming or more reliable broadband connections. Bundling these media services together, as Virgin Media has already done offers yet further opportunities within the media sector, in terms of grasping greater market share. Consumers like simple, one-stop shopping when it comes to the media options available; this is something that Virgin Media can continue to exploit, particularly now that it has signed an agreement with Sky. Threats to Virgin Media come from other similar media companies such as Orange or BT who remain as large players in the market. In particular, Virgin Media is rumoured to have difficulties with its infrastructure reliability, which could potentially allow competitors such as BT to increase market share. The media sector as a whole is extremely fast moving; therefore, the main threat is that Virgin Media may fail to keep pace, thus losing its customer base to another more innovative company. The flower of service Facilitating elements(services) Information: Customers often require information about how to obtain and use a product and services. They may also need remainders and documentation. Example, Of virgin broadband information services are: Direction to service site and using instruction, warning and insurance, terms and condition of services. Order taking: Many goods and services must be ordered or reserved in advance. Customer needs to know what available and may want to secure commitment to delivery Billing:How much do I owe you? .Customers deserve clear, accurate and intelligible bills and statements. Payment: Customer may pay faster and more cheerfully if Virgin makes transactions simple and convenient for them. 2) Enhancing services: Consultation: Value can be added to goods and services by offering advice and consultation. Safe keeping: Customers prefer not to worry about looking after the personal possessions that they bring with them to a service site. Exceptions: Customers appreciate some flexibility in a business when they make special request. They expect it when not everything goes according to plan. Hospitality: Customers who invest time and effort in visiting a business and using its services deserve to be treated as welcome guests. User Preparation When implementing new system, it is important that personnel, employees, managers and others in the organization are prepared for it. This process is also called process of readying the decision makers, managers, employees, and stakeholders for a new system. In this regard, user training becomes very essential, because without it the success of the system cannot be guaranteed. This process of user preparation is planned and executed properly and involved a lot of arrangement, and consideration (Stair Reynolds, 2008). Virgin Media, the UKs leading fibre-optic broadband provider currently has almost 60,000 SME and public sector broadband clients, but has announced that it is looking to grow this significantly. Virgin Media has unveiled plans to target the small and medium business customers of its rival broadband giant BT. The move comes soon after BTs commitment to undercut Virgin Medias residential super-fast broadband prices, with its new fibre-optic broadband service which BT is rolling out this year. There is a very big market up for grabs, as small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) spend about  £18bn a year on IT and telecoms. Virgin Media currently have revenues of about  £600m pa from business broadband customers and this is forecast to rise to about  £1bn pa in three to five years. Virgin Media chief operating officer Andrew Barron said: This is another step forwards. Weve been working in the business division for 18 months on getting the business processes to the right level. Weve improved it dramatically. We can use the fibre-optic network to differentiate ourselves. Marketing communication Mix: The marketing mix is the set of controllable tacticle marketing tools that the firm blends to produce the Response it wants in the target market (Melewar. T.C., Saunders.J, 2000) Marketing communications are the means by which firms attempt to inform, persuade, and remind consumers directly or indirectly about the products and brands that they sell. A company s total marketing communication mix also called promotion mix (Kotler, 2005) consists of specific blending of advertising, personal selling, sales promotion, public relations, and direct marketing tools that are used by company to pursue its advertising and marketing objectives. The marketing communication activities which contribute to the marketing of any new or existing product: by creating awareness of the brand; linking the right associations to the products image in the consumers memory, facilitating stronger consumer-product connection etc. Current extended marketing mix marketing mix. People People is one of the elements of service marketing mix. People define a service.. In case of service marketing, people can make or break an organization. Thus virgin media nowadays are involved into specially getting their staff trained in interpersonal skills and customer service with a focus towards customer satisfaction. In fact many companies have to undergo accreditation to show that their staffs are better than the rest. Definitely a USP in case of services. Process Service process is the way in which a service is delivered to the end customer. The process of a service company such as virgin media in delivering its product is of utmost importance. It is also a critical component in the service blueprint, wherein before establishing the service, the company defines exactly what should be the process of the service product reaching the end customer. Physical Evidence The last element in the service marketing mix is a very important element. As said before, services are intangible in nature. However, to create a better customer experience tangible elements are also delivered with the service. Physical evidence is used as a differentiator in service marketing. This is the service marketing mix (7p) which is also known as the extended marketing mix Position Positioning in different areas is not always easy (I can say it is too difficult). Virgin Group was aware of the difficulties so they had to think about the Virgin brand name. They have never entered in a business before doing solid researches and analysis. They have reviewed the industry and tried to look from customers eyes. They were aware of the trade-offs they had to think before entering a new business venture and they have never underestimated the risks behind new entrance. Advertising Virgin Media launched to much fanfare in February 2007, with a public relations event and an expensive advertising campaign which covered major UK television channels, newspapers and billboards. In an effort to increase awareness of the group and its services, Virgin Medias campaign used bright red colours to portray its brand image. Recent[update] television advertising featured actress Uma Thurman and comedienne Ruby Wax, and currently[update] features actor Samuel L Jackson, whilst the print advertising features bold typography. Virgin Media also sponsored the Channel 4 reality TV show Big Brother until the end of the ninth series. Virgin Media Business/ On Thursday 11 February 2010, Virgin Media announced that its business division would be rebranded as Virgin Media Business with immediate effect. The company, which had been operating as ntl:Telewest Business, is now the largest B2B brand in the Virgin Group. This marked the end of the NTL and Telewest being used by the company. Virgin Media Business is the UKs only telco with a national fibre optic Next Generation Network. Organisations working with Virgin Media Business include London City Airport, Arqiva, Hampshire and Isle of Wight Partnership and South West Water. Consumer behaviours Understanding how consumer behaviour is changing will be an important requirement of Virgin Medias upcoming music offering and, should they become law, the Governments legislative proposals will also require measurement of the level of copyright infringement on ISPs networks. Deticas CViewà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢ technology potentially offers a non-intrusive solution which enhances our understanding of aggregate customer behaviour without identifying or storing individual customers data. Consumer Segment We face intense competition from a variety of entertainment and communications service providers, which offer comparable broadband internet, television, fixed line telephony and mobile telephony services. In addition, technological advances and product innovations have increased, and will likely continue to increase, the number of alternatives available to our customers from other providers and intensify the competitive environment. See Risk Factors-We operate in highly competitive markets. However, we believe that we have a competitive advantage in the U.K. residential market due to the superior technical capabilities of our cable network over the network of the incumbent BT, which many of our competitors rely on to provide their services. We also face intense competition in the mobile telephony market, primarily driven by increased pricing pressure from both established and new service providers, evolving customer needs and technological developments. We offer most of our products on a stand-alone basis or as part of bundled packages designed to encourage customers to subscribe to multiple services. We offer broadband internet, fixed line telephony and mobile telephony and data services throughout the U.K., and currently offer television services exclusively in areas served by our cable network Segmentation, Targeting, Positioning (STP) Before start think about marketing (4P), you must understand what is STP. Terms of STP include : market strategy; target markets; positioning; market segmentation and target markets; market segmentation and demographics Segmentation Segmentation : Identifying all segments for the product/service. Many of the resources listed in module 3 will be helpful to you when you develop segments. To be useful, segments should be: Measurable Accessible (can you reach them) Profitable Distinct from one another the objective of segmentation is to find attractive markets. Strategies include Break market into components Regroup into market segments Select which segment to target Targeting Virgin Media is currently number two in the home broadband market in the UK, but it obviously doesnt want to be left behind when it comes to broadband on the move. The company has its own-brand mobile phone service, so its wasnt that much of a leap for it to add mobile broadband into the mix. Virgin is offering mobile broadband via a number of different deals. For example, if youre already a Virgin customer using its XL (20Mb) or L (10Mb) cable broadband packages or its ADSL Bundle 1 offering, you can get mobile broadband with a 1GB usage allowance for an additional fiver a month. If youre on one of the lower-end home broadband deals you can get the same package for a tenner a month. However, for this review were looking at the standard retail pack which targets people who dont already have a Virgin service. This deal costs  £15 a month on an 18-month contract for a 3GB monthly download allowance and a free USB modem Positioning. Positioning is an essential component and skill in good marketing. Perceptual maps are used to determine the position of a product, firm, person, service or idea. Positioning maps or perceptual maps can be simple, yet very effective marketing tools. One definition of Positioning Theory is: the science of perceptual strategy. It is based on a theory that strategy can only be planned in the mind of the consumer, not the marketplace*. It is important to understand the levels of competition because positioning applies at all levels of competition. For example: Product Level Corporate Level Industry Level The STP Process The growing use of the STP process has occurred as a direct result of the prevalence of mature markets, the greater diversity in customer needs, and the ability to reach specialized or niche segments. As such marketers are increasingly segmenting markets and identifying attractive segments (i.e. who to focus on and why?), in order to identify new product opportunities, develop suitable positioning and communications strategies (i.e. what message to communicate), and effectively allocate resources to key marketing activities (i.e. how much should we spend and where?). Organizations will often commission segmentation research when they want to re-scope their marketing strategy, investigate a declining brand, launch a new product, or restructure their pricing policy. Organizations operating in highly dynamic environments seek to conduct segmentation research at regular intervals, to keep in touch with changes in the marketplace. STP refers to the three activities segmentation, targeting, and positioning SOURCES 1. Virgin Media, fourth quarter 2007 results presentation, February 2008. 2. Carphone Warehouse Plc fourth quarter trading update, April 2008. 3. Domestic Competitive Market Review, 2004, Ofgem.

Womens Progress in the Late Nineteenth Century :: European Europe History

Women's Progress in the Late Nineteenth Century Women didn't gain the right to vote until the twentieth century but great strides were made starting in the 1840s to help women on their way to winning legal privileges and responsibilities.   Below is rundown by year of the most important laws passed in England to try to help out the situation of all women, especially working and middle class.   Just imagine what life would have been like before these laws were passed.   We read all the time about women who complain about being helpless.   How often is that claim believed?   Women were practically helpless and almost completely dependent upon either family or husband in the eyes of the law.   Unless a girl became a wealthy widow or stayed a pitied spinster she had no chance of being independent.   But as you will soon see, the road to change is a rough and repetitive one.    1839- The Infant Custody Act is passed.   It states that any woman who can enter a suit and prove herself inoccent of adultery may have custody of children under seven years of age and periodic visitation with those under the age of consent (sixteen).   Of course most women weren't independently wealthy so they couldn't enter a suit and the act also kept justly, or unjustly, charged adulteresses away from their children with no similar provision towards unfaithful husbands. 1857- The Married Women's Property Bill (two versions)   One version of this bill declared that marriage laws needed a serious overhaul, that married women should have the same property rights as single women, and that women should have speedy access to the courts to gain protection for their property.   But this version dropped out of sight.   The other version didn't change the court system at all but did propose letting women control their own property after marriage, allowing them to dispose of it according to their will, and to apply the same inheritance rules to a deceased woman's belongings as to a man's.   This bill was approved on its second reading but dropped due to the passing of the Divorce Act the same year. 1857- The Matrimonial Causes Act- The Divorce Act, as it was called, gave courts the decision on who to award custody to.   This meant that women who had been found guilty of adultery could gain custody of their children if the courts   Ã‚  Ã‚   thought that was what would be best.